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ABSTRACT
Summary
This report is an attempt to pull together all of the available written information on Graeme Hall Swamp (GHS). It is intended to show how much information has been acquired over the decades, and to provide a gateway to that information rather than a comprehensive review. The report ranges through history, physical description of the area, studies of water, plants, animals, social and economic assessment. It includes accounts of various impacts and management initiatives, as well as the controversies that have mired management over the years.
The Graeme Hall Swamp is the last remaining complete coastal wetland ecosystem of its kind in Barbados, and the desire to have the GHS established and managed as a nature reserve for the benefit of the Barbadian public has been evident since at least the 1960s. As tourism became more prominent in the 70s and 80s, the potential for tourism use increasingly became a part of the rationale for establishing a nature reserve there. Despite many studies and some notable initiatives such as the establishment of the Graeme Hall Nature Sanctuary (GHNS) in 1998 and GHS having been declared as a Wetland of International Significance under the Ramsar Convention in 2006, the GHS continues to be a problem area rather than the vibrant nature reserve envisaged by ARA (1998). This has been largely due to impacts from the South Coast Sewage Treatment Plant which has consistently discharged preliminary (screened) treated sewage into the swamp. The impacts of this contamination were exacerbated by natural sand accretion resulting in the dramatic widening of Worthing Beach which at that time impeded tidal exchanges between the swamp and the sea resulting in the GHS transitioning towards a freshwater ecosystem.
As we move towards 2030, the year in which the Sustainable Development Goals are supposed to be met, and with the global targets of conserving at least 30% of terrestrial, inland water, and marine and coastal areas, especially those of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem function, the imperative to preserve GHS is stronger than ever. As we conclude this review, we are hopeful that planned initiatives to establish GHS as an OS2 Natural Heritage Conservation Area will be fruitful and that GHS will be established in time to contribute to meeting the 2030 target.
1. Introduction
Graeme Hall Swamp (GHS) is one of three major coastal wetlands in Barbados (the other two are Long Pond and Chancery Lane) last the remaining mangrove forest on island (Mahon et al. 2023). Its natural heritage value has long been discussed and reported upon (Hutt 1975, 1982, Buckley et al. 2009). It was formally recognized in the two previous Physical Development Plans (PDPs) where it was flagged as a conservation area (GoB 1988, GoB 2003). It was declared as a Ramsar1 site in 2006; details are provided by GoB (2005). This designation represents a governmental commitment to take the necessary steps to ensure that the ecological character of the GHS is maintained (Ramsar Convention, n.d). The 2023 PDP identifies GHS as a potential Natural Heritage Conservation Area, category OS22 under The Barbados System of Parks and Open Space (GoB 2023). Operationalising this designation and implementing the commitments under the Ramsar Convention will require the establishment of a management arrangement for the area, education and awareness-raising, preparation of development and management plans, a system of monitoring of a set of stated objectives, and establishment of a sustainable financing mechanism. The purpose of this review is to contribute to that process by bringing all of the disparate information on the GHS together in one document.
Over the years GHS has been extensively studied and a wealth of information has been generated, almost entirely in the grey literature. While there are numerous substantial documents regarding the GHS, several are essentially repetitions of previous work. The value of these as milestones along the way and as guidance for the development that has taken place is recognized. However, this review will focus on original information sources.
2.1 Prehistory
According to Dunning et al (2018) palaeoenvironmental investigations at Graeme Hall have indicated that during the past 1,400 years the landscape changed from an open bay to a closed wetland setting, possibly as result of rapid displacement of marine sediments to land blocking the mouth of the bay, possibly caused by a hurricane or a tsunami (Dunning et al. 2018: 193, 197). This conclusion is supported by Ramcharan (2005) who took a 2.25 m core of sediments from the GHS in Barbados which provided a 1,400 year record of sedimentological and vegetation change. He found a similar sequence of change from marine to freshwater with terrigenous sediment inputs.
The presence of charcoal in the core taken by Dunning (2018) was interpreted as indicative of early human presence in the area. Similarly an instance of corn pollen was taken as indicating early agriculture. Overall findings were considered to be evidence for an anthropogenic landscape at Graeme Hall, dating back to well before ca. AD 800. These findings are consistent with a core analyzed by Ramcharan (2005). Dunning noted that two Saladoid, three Troumassoid and three Suazoid sites had been found in the general vicinity of GHS. However, no sites are shown in the GHS area by Drewett
2.2 Early Documented History
Foster (1986) provides a review of the ownership of GHS from earliest known times. Similarly ARA (1997) provides a review of GHS over time. However, these reviews are mostly drawn from a series of articles by Kinas (1982 a-f) in the Advocate newspaper. Following is a synopsis, with the series of maps in Figure 1 showing some of the changes in the area over time.
The area was initially drained in the 1600s to create the 151 ha (373 acre) Graeme Hall Cane Plantation (ARA 1997).
All of this historical perspective is to make the point that the development of policy for sustainable development in Barbados is taking place in a structured global context that gives all countries access to a wide range of concepts, information and implementation support. What we have seen over this time is that thinking about the environment has shifted from being about 5 conservation for its own sake, and seeing environmentalists as anti- any kind of development, to seeing it as an essential component of human well-being and consequently, critical for sustainable development. This recognition is embodied in the idea that there are three pillars of sustainable development, all of which must receive serious attention and must be dealt with in an integrated fashion, as illustrated by Figure 2 (Kates et al. 2005).
Ligon’s 1657 map provides little detail for the area (Figure 1a). Robert Morden’s 1668 map shows neither a swamp nor a coastal road in the area(Figure 1b). The name Kirton shows up in this map as a plantation owner and Kinas (1982b) reports that the 1679 census identifies Phillip Kirton as owning 146 ha (360 acres) in Christ Church, which he and his mother inherited in 1672. Interestingly, Morden’s map shows Little Island just offshore. Perhaps a reef rubble island thrown up by a hurricane?
According to Bigney & Whitehead (2003), the south coast road (Highway 7) was built on the sand bar separating the mangrove swamp from the sea in 1715, and is clearly marked on all maps from 1732 6 onwards (Figure 1). Moll’s 1732 map shows a road along the coast but no swamp (Figure 1c). However, while there are plantations shown close together along the coast, the area that would be GHS appears empty suggesting that it may have been swamp at the time.
Kinas (1982b) reports that in 1722 one Grame bought Kirton’s land and that it included “ponds, rivers, streams, waterways, underwoods and lakes”, suggesting that it could have been what is now Graeme Hall Swamp. The name Graeme shows up in Moll’s 1732 map. Bowen’s 1747 map also shows a coast road, and the GHS space is once again relatively empty (Figure 1d). The name Graeme remains just north of what is referred to as Half Moon Bay, presumably the bay off GHS now referred to as the St. Lawrence Lagoon. Bellin’s 1758 map shows the road but little other detail (Figure 1e). The map based on Mayo, improved by T. Jefferys 1775, shows the coast in more detail than most other maps, with St. Lawrence point quite prominent. The coast road follows the coast closely, with Graeme as a substantial plantation with its mill on the rise, and Kirton as a minor one closer to the sea (Figure 1f). Edwards 1794 map shows a coast road albeit rather straight and Graeme as a main plantation just east of Half Moon Bay (Figure 1g).
According to Kinas (1982b, c), the ownership of the plantation was a long and complex series of inheritances, transfers and court cases in the early 1800s.
2.3 The period of intensive physical changes (1820-1980)
GHS has been highly impacted by humans during the last 200 years. According to ARA (1997) the swamp itself, which was part of the Graeme Hall Estate, remained largely untouched until the 1820s when it was renovated as a place to shoot migratory birds in the eastern section by one Jacob Belgrave who offered the area for rent (Kinas 1982c). Around that time, the eastern, freshwater marsh was extensively altered by creating a series of freshwater canals to attract migratory birds for shooting, and high mud berms upon which fodder for the mules that pulled the trams from Bridgetown to Worthing was grown (Alleyne 1981, Parker & Oxenford 1998).
Baralliere’s 1825 map is the first to show a lake at GHS with canals connecting it to a main canal that empties into the sea (Figure 1h). Taylor’s 1859 shows a similarly configured water body with a swamp to its east. Graeme Hall Plantation is shown about where the Ministry of Agriculture now is. The opening to the sea is relatively large, but no bridge is shown. Interestingly, there is a substantial structure there called Stream House. One can conclude there was a big enough stream, or flow to the sea, to warrant being called a stream and to name a house after.
Parker & Oxenford (1998) note that the stone bridge over the channel that connects GHS with the sea was built in 1871 and remains today. No information could be found about what kind of bridge or crossing was there before the present bridge. The construction of the road and development along it effectively eliminates any other direct natural connection between GHS and the St. Lawrence Lagoon (ARA 1997). However, exchange of water between the sea and GHS has been postulated as taking place through the sand of the separating bar (EEC 2010).
In 1927 the western section of the swamp was further modified by another bird shooting club to create a number of shallow ponds to attract migratory birds (Bigney & Whitehead 2003). It was about this time that the sluice gate to control the flow of water into the sea was constructed (Kinas 1982d). In 1947, the then owner, Wexler, is said to have constructed the causeway that divides the swamp into east and west sections (Kinas 1982d). Kinas (1982d) also reports that this causeway prevented seawater from 7
reaching the eastern (Government) portion of the swamp, and retained spring water from Amity Lodge in the western portion. The 1956 1:10,000 topographic map was based on 1950 air photos (Figure 2). The map shows that the western area was covered by shallow trays for shooting migratory birds (Figure 3a). It also shows the canal and berm system, primarily in the eastern area, referred to above. The central embankment or causeway that divides the eastern and western sections of the swamp can also be seen in Figure 3a. By the time the most recent topographic map of the area was prepared, the area was shown as swamp and wetland without details of the canals and berms (figure 3b).
In the 1960s GoB acquired 117 ha (289 acres) comprising 76 ha (189 acres) arable land, 19 ha (48 acres) of swamp and 1.4 ha (3.5 acres) around the sluice gate (CZMU 2007). This did not include the privately owned western area which belonged to Mr Corbin and was sold in 1969 to South Coast Development Inc. for a proposed lakeside apartment complex.
The swamp continued to be used primarily for bird shooting until the 1970s when development and conservation efforts started. In 1970 the well-established Graeme Hall Hunting Club sold a 12 ha (29 acre) portion of the western swamp to Ben Corbin of Property Consultants Ltd (EMP 2000). Concurrently, the Barbados Government acquired the eastern area of the swamp after a dispute with Graeme Hall Development Co. In 1972 Mr. Corbin completed a dredge and fill operation creating a 5 ha (12 acre) lake (ARA 1997) as the centerpiece of a condominium development proposal that was submitted to Town and Country Planning (Hutt 1982a, EMP 2000). The proposal was rejected by Town and Country Planning and from the 1970’s until the mid-1990’s the area was unmanaged and the red and white mangroves were able to re-establish themselves.
In 1972, when the main lake was dredged, the sludge was used to fill in most of the western ponds and create pasture land. The extensive annual mangrove cutting in the swamp ceased in the 1970s, and shooting in the swamp has been banned since 1981. Further land reclamation was carried out in 1980 by Goddards in preparation for development that never happened (Alleyne 1981). In 1996 Ben Corbin 9 sold his portion of the swamp to the Graeme Hall Bird Sanctuary, now known as the Graeme Hall Nature Sanctuary (GHNS). GHNS also purchased an additional two ha (five acres) of the adjacent land and then owned 14 ha (35 acres) of the Graeme Hall Swamp (Bigney & Whitehead 2003).
